Despite the growing lack of citizen enrollment, the Roman army was successful until the battles of Adrianople (378) and Frigidus (394), which essentially resulted in the destruction of the armies of the eastern and western empires respectively. Rapid barbarization of the army followed.
Recruitment
Many privileges were awarded to men who enrolled in the later Roman army. The most notable privilege was an exemption from taxation for themselves and for members of their extended family. An early fourth century law stated that recruits were to be between 20 and 25 years of age. But these limits were gradually broadened to make men as young as 18 and as old as 35 eligible for military service.
There were also physical requirements that had to be met. A recruit had to be at least 5 feet 7 inches (1.7m) tall and in good physical condition. New recruits underwent a probationary period, after which they received a tattoo or identity disk and were entered on the records. It was at this time also that they took the military oath. The recruit was now officially classified as a soldier.
Conditions of Service
The new soldier received a uniform consisting of a shirt (sticharium), tunic (chlamys), cloak (pallium), and probably a pair of boots. If a cavalryman, he received a horse. The soldier also received the weapons appropriate to his branch of service. Infantrymen typically received a long sword (spatha) and lance. Protective equipment included an oval shield, an iron helmet, and a chain mail (lorica hamata) or scale armor (lorica squamata) shirt.
The soldier received regular pay (stipendium) thrice yearly. This sum, which was usually very little, was supplemented by substantial donatives from the emperor every five years. In addition, monetary rewards were frequently offered as incentives and rewards for good service. Soldiers were also entitled to a share in any booty. The frontier soldier received regular rations (annonae) from storehouses. Members of the field army probably drew theirs from the revenue of the province in which they were stationed. Frontier troops were quartered in forts and towns along the frontier. Soldiers of the field army were usually quartered in private quarters in the cities, which created a great deal of resentment from the citizens.
Promotion was principally by seniority but merit could also be a factor. Transfers to other units were discouraged. It was possible to rise through the ranks to officer status. Marriage was permitted and soldiers were allowed to take leave. After 20 years of service (24 for full benefits) a soldier was allowed to retire. He received an honorable discharge (honesta missio) if he desired to leave the army. Some men stayed longer. An inscription records one man who spent 42 years in the army before retiring.
Recruiting Problems
Despite some good incentives fourth century Roman armies suffered from a lack of citizen recruits. The Rhine and Danube frontiers had been the greatest source of recruits up to the third century. Heavy fighting in these areas at that time contributed to a manpower shortage.
Military service had also become unpopular. Most new recruits were conscripts rather than volunteers. Many of these would frequently desert while on their way to their units. Some men would intentionally mutilate themselves in order to avoid service. The general apathy towards military service was caused by a dislike of serving far from home, a lack of patriotic feeling among the citizenry, and landowners who did not want the army to take their tenants.
Barbarization of the Army
Emperors were forced to look increasingly to barbarians to fill the army’s manpower needs. Germans made up most of the barbarians that were recruited into the army but other groups also contributed. Many were attracted to military service because it offered them a path to a higher standard of living. Others were forced to serve in exchange for being allowed to settle on Roman territory. All barbarian troops were called foederati. Initially they served under Roman command. But later, after the massive defeats suffered by the Roman armies at the end of the century, the emperors were forced to allow the foederati to serve under their own chieftains. By the fifth century the Roman army had thus ceased to be Roman.
Source:
Southern, Pat and Dixon, Karen R. The Late Roman Army, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1996.
